Building a plugin

Writing your own PennyLane plugin, to allow an external quantum library to take advantage of the automatic differentiation ability of PennyLane, is a simple and easy process. In this section, we will walk through the steps for creating your own PennyLane plugin. In addition, we also provide two default reference plugins — 'default.qubit' for basic pure state qubit simulations, and 'default.gaussian' for basic continuous-variable simulations.

What a plugin provides

A quick primer on terminology of PennyLane plugins in this section:

• A plugin is an external Python package that provides additional quantum devices to PennyLane.

• Each plugin may provide one (or more) devices, that are accessible directly through PennyLane, as well as any additional private functions or classes.

• Depending on the scope of the plugin, you may wish to provide additional (custom) quantum operations and observables that the user can import.

Important

In your plugin module, standard NumPy (not the wrapped Autograd version of NumPy) should be imported in all places (i.e., import numpy as np).

Creating your device

The first step in creating your PennyLane plugin is to create your device class. This is as simple as importing the abstract base class QubitDevice from PennyLane, and subclassing it:

from pennylane import QubitDevice

class MyDevice(QubitDevice):
    """MyDevice docstring"""
    name = 'My custom device'
    short_name = 'example.mydevice'
    pennylane_requires = '0.1.0'
    version = '0.0.1'
    author = 'Ada Lovelace'

Here, we have begun defining some important class attributes that allow PennyLane to identify and use the device. These include:

• Device.name: a string containing the official name of the device

• Device.short_name: the string used to identify and load the device by users of PennyLane

• Device.pennylane_requires: the PennyLane version this device supports. Note that this class attribute supports pip requirements.txt style version ranges, for example:

  • pennylane_requires = "2" to support PennyLane version 2.x.x

  • pennylane_requires = ">=0.1.5,<0.6" to support a range of PennyLane versions

• Device.version: the version number of the device

• Device.author: the author of the device

Defining all these attributes is mandatory.

Device capabilities

You must further tell PennyLane about the operations that your device supports, as well as potential further capabilities, by providing the following class attributes/properties:

• Device.operations: a set of the supported PennyLane operations as strings, e.g.,

  operations = {"CNOT", "PauliX"}
  

  See Quantum operations for a full list of operations supported by PennyLane.

  If your device does not natively support an operation that has the decomposition() static method defined, PennyLane will attempt to decompose the operation before calling the device. For example, the Rot decomposition method will decompose the single-qubit rotation gate to RZ and RY gates.

  Note

  If the convention differs between the built-in PennyLane operation and the corresponding operation in the targeted framework, ensure that the conversion between the two conventions takes place automatically by the plugin device.

• Device.capabilities(): A class method which returns the dictionary of capabilities of a device. A new device should override this method to retrieve the parent classes’ capabilities dictionary, make a copy and update and/or add capabilities before returning the copy.

  Examples of capabilities are:

  • 'model' (str): either 'qubit' or 'cv'.

  • 'returns_state' (bool): True if the device returns the quantum state via dev.state.

  • 'supports_inverse_operations' (bool): True if the device supports applying the inverse of operations. Operations which should be inverted have the property operation.inverse == True.

  • 'supports_tensor_observables' (bool): True if the device supports observables composed from tensor products such as PauliZ(wires=0) @ PauliZ(wires=1).

  Some capabilities are queried by PennyLane core to make decisions on how to best run computations, others are used by external apps built on top of the device ecosystem.

  To find out which capabilities are (possibly automatically) defined for your device dev = device('my.device'), check the output of dev.capabilities().

Adding arguments to your device

Important

PennyLane supports both qubit and continuous-variable (CV) devices. However, from here onwards, we will demonstrate plugin development focusing on qubit-based devices inheriting from the QubitDevice class.

Defining the __init__.py method of a custom device is not necessary; by default, the QubitDevice initialization will be called, where the user can pass the following arguments:

• wires (int or Iterable[Number, str]): The number of subsystems represented by the device, or iterable that contains unique labels for the subsystems as numbers (i.e., [-1, 0, 2]) and/or strings (['ancilla', 'q1', 'q2']).

• shots=1000 (int): number of circuit evaluations/random samples used to estimate expectation values of observables in non-analytic mode.

• analytic=True (bool): If True, the device calculates probability, expectation values, and variances analytically. If False, a finite number of samples are used to estimate these quantities. Note that hardware devices should always set analytic=False.

To add your own device arguments, or to override any of the above defaults, simply overwrite the __init__.py method. For example, here is a device where the number of wires is fixed to 24, that cannot be used in analytic mode, and that can accept a dictionary of low-level hardware control options:

class CustomDevice(QubitDevice):
    name = 'My custom device'
    short_name = 'example.mydevice'
    pennylane_requires = '0.1.0'
    version = '0.0.1'
    author = 'Ada Lovelace'

    operations = {"PauliX", "RX", "CNOT"}
    observables = {"PauliZ", "PauliX", "PauliY"}

    def __init__(self, shots=1024, hardware_options=None):
        super().__init__(wires=24, shots=shots, analytic=False)
        self.hardware_options = hardware_options or hardware_defaults

Note that we have also overridden the default shot number.

The user can now pass any of these arguments to the PennyLane device loader:

>>> dev = qml.device("example.mydevice", hardware_options={"t2": 0.1})
>>> dev.hardware_options
{"t2": 0.1}

Device execution

Once all the class attributes are defined, it is necessary to define some required class methods to allow PennyLane to apply operations and measure observables on your device.

To execute operations on the device, the following methods must be defined:

apply(operations, **kwargs)

Apply quantum operations, rotate the circuit into the measurement basis, and compile and execute the quantum circuit.

If the device is a statevector simulator (it has an analytic attribute) then it must also overwrite:

analytic_probability([wires])

Return the (marginal) probability of each computational basis state from the last run of the device.

The QubitDevice class provides the following convenience methods that may be used by the plugin:

active_wires(operators)	Returns the wires acted on by a set of operators.
marginal_prob(prob[, wires])	Return the marginal probability of the computational basis states by summing the probabiliites on the non-specified wires.

In addition, if your qubit device generates its own computational basis samples for measured wires after execution, you need to overwrite the following method:

generate_samples()

Returns the computational basis samples generated for all wires.

generate_samples() should return samples with shape (dev.shots, dev.num_wires). Furthermore, PennyLane uses the convention \(|q_0,q_1,\dots,q_{N-1}\rangle\) where \(q_0\) is the most significant bit.

And thats it! The device has inherited expval(), var(), and sample() methods, that accepts an observable (or tensor product of observables) and returns the corresponding measurement statistic.

Advanced execution control (click to expand)

Additional flexibility is sometimes required for interfacing with more complicated frameworks.

When PennyLane needs to evaluate a QNode, it accesses the execute() method of your plugin which, by default, performs the following process:

self.check_validity(circuit.operations, circuit.observables)

# apply all circuit operations
self.apply(circuit.operations, rotations=circuit.diagonalizing_gates)

# generate computational basis samples
if (not self.analytic) or circuit.is_sampled:
    self._samples = self.generate_samples()

# compute the required statistics
results = self.statistics(circuit.observables)

return self._asarray(results)

where

• circuit is a CircuitGraph object

• circuit.operations are the user-provided operations to be executed

• circuit.observables are the user-provided observables to be measured

• circuit.diagonalizing_gates are the gates that rotate the circuit prior to measurement so that computational basis measurements are performed in the eigenbasis of the requested observables

• QubitDevice.statistics() returns the results of QubitDevice.expval(), var(), or sample() depending on the type of observable.

In advanced cases, the QubitDevice.execute() method, as well as QubitDevice.statistics(), may be overwritten directly. This provides full flexibility for handling the device execution yourself. However, this may have unintended side-effects and is not recommended.

Wire handling

PennyLane uses the Wires class for the internal representation of wires. Wires inherits from Python’s Sequence, and represents an ordered set of unique wire labels. Indexing a Wires instance will return another Wires instance of length one. The labels attribute stores a tuple of the wire labels.

For example:

from pennylane.wires import Wires

wires = Wires(['ancilla', 0, 1])
print(wires[0]) # <Wires = ['ancilla']>
print(wires.labels) # ('ancilla', 0, 1)

As shown in the section on Quantum circuits, a device can be created with custom wire labels:

from pennylane import *

dev = device('my.device', wires=['q11', 'q12', 'q21', 'q22'])

@qnode(dev)
def circuit():
   Gate1(wires='q22')
   Gate2(wires=['q21','q11'])
   Gate1(wires=['q21'])
   return expval(Obs(wires='q11') @ Obs(wires='q12'))

Behind the scenes, when my.device gets created it turns ['q11', 'q12', 'q21', 'q22'] into a Wires object and stores it in the device’s wires attribute. Likewise, when gates and observables get created they turn their wires argument into a Wires object and store it in their wires attribute.

print(dev.wires) #  <Wires = ['q11', 'q12', 'q21', 'q22']>

op = Gate2(wires=['q21','q11'])
print(op.wires) # <Wires = ['q21', 'q11']>

When the device applies operations, it needs to translate op.wires into wire labels that the backend “understands”. This can be done with the map_wires() method which maps Wires objects to other Wires objects, but changes the labels according to the wire_map attribute of the device which defines the translation.

# inside the class defining 'my.device', which inherits from the base Device class
device_wires = self.map_wires(op.wires)
print(device_wires) # <Wires = [2, 0]>

By default, the map translates the custom labels 'q11', 'q12', 'q21', 'q22' to consecutive integers 0, 1, 2, 3. If a device uses a different wire labeling, such as non-consecutive wires 0, 4, 7, 12, the define_wire_map() method has to be overwritten accordingly.

The device_wires can then be further processed, for example by extracting the actual labels as a tuple, list or array, or by getting the number of wires:

device_wires.labels # (2, 0)

device_wires.tolist() # [2, 0]

device_wires.toarray() # ndarray([2, 0])

len(device_wires) # 2

The Wires class also offers set functionality like identifying the unique or shared wires between several Wires object.

As a convention, devices should do the translation and unpacking as late as possible in the function tree, and where possible pass the original Wires objects around.

Identifying and installing your device

When performing a hybrid computation using PennyLane, one of the first steps is often to initialize the quantum device(s). PennyLane identifies the devices via their short_name, which allows the device to be initialized in the following way:

import pennylane as qml
dev1 = qml.device(short_name, wires=2)

where short_name is a string that uniquely identifies the device. The short_name should have the form pluginname.devicename, using periods for delimitation.

PennyLane uses a setuptools entry_points approach to plugin discovery/integration. In order to make the devices of your plugin accessible to PennyLane, simply provide the following keyword argument to the setup() function in your setup.py file:

devices_list = [
        'example.mydevice1 = MyModule.MySubModule:MyDevice1'
        'example.mydevice2 = MyModule.MySubModule:MyDevice2'
    ],
setup(entry_points={'pennylane.plugins': devices_list})

where

• devices_list is a list of devices you would like to register,

• example.mydevice1 is the short name of the device, and

• MyModule.MySubModule is the path to your Device class, MyDevice1.

To ensure your device is working as expected, you can install it in developer mode using pip install -e pluginpath, where pluginpath is the location of the plugin. It will then be accessible via PennyLane.

Testing

All plugins should come with extensive unit tests, to ensure that each logical unit of the device has correct execution.

Integration tests to check that the probabilities, expectation values, variance, and samples are correct for various circuits and observables are provided as part of the PennyLane device test utility:

pl-device-test --device device_shortname --shots 10000 --analytic False

In general, as all supported operations have their gradient formula defined and tested by PennyLane, testing that your device calculates the correct gradients is not required. For more details on the PennyLane device test utility, see pennylane.devices.tests.

Supporting new operations

If you would like to support an operation that is not currently supported by PennyLane, you can subclass the Operation class, and define the number of parameters the operation takes, and the number of wires the operation acts on. For example, to define a custom gate depending on parameter \(\phi\),

class CustomGate(Operation):
    """Custom gate"""
    num_params = 2
    num_wires = 1
    par_domain = 'R'

    grad_method = 'A'
    grad_recipe = None

    @classmethod
    def _matrix(cls, *params):
        """Returns the matrix representation of the operator for the
        provided parameter values, in the computational basis."""
        return np.array([[params[0], 1], [1, -params[1]]]) / math.sqrt(2)

    @staticmethod
    def decomposition(*params, wires):
        """(Optional) Returns a list of PennyLane operations that decompose
        the custom gate."""
        return [qml.RZ(params[0]/2, wires=wires[0]), qml.PauliX(params[1], wires=wires[0])]

where

• num_params: the number of parameters the operation takes

• num_wires: the number of wires the operation acts on.

  You may use pennylane.operation.All to represent an operation that acts on all wires, or pennylane.operation.Any to represent an operation that can act on any number of wires (for example, operations where the number of wires they act on is a function of the operation parameter).

• par_domain: the domain of the gate parameters; 'N' for natural numbers (including zero), 'R' for floats, 'A' for arrays of floats/complex numbers, 'L' for list of arrays of floats/complex numbers and None if the gate does not have free parameters

• grad_method: the gradient computation method; 'A' for the analytic method, 'F' for finite differences, and None if the operation may not be differentiated

• grad_recipe: The gradient recipe for the analytic 'A' method. This is a list with one tuple per operation parameter. For parameter \(k\), the tuple is of the form \((c_k, s_k)\), resulting in a gradient recipe of

  \[\frac{d}{d\phi_k}f(O(\phi_k)) = c_k\left[f(O(\phi_k+s_k))-f(O(\phi_k-s_k))\right].\]

  where \(f\) is an expectation value that depends on \(O(\phi_k)\), an example being

  \[f(O(\phi_k)) = \braket{0 | O^{\dagger}(\phi_k) \hat{B} O(\phi_k) | 0}\]

  which is the simple expectation value of the operator \(\hat{B}\) evolved via the gate \(O(\phi_k)\).

  Note that if grad_recipe = None, the default gradient recipe is \((c_k, s_k)=(1/2, \pi/2)\) for every parameter.

The user can then import this operation directly from your plugin, and use it when defining a QNode:

import pennylane as qml
from MyModule.MySubModule import CustomGate

@qnode(dev1)
def my_qfunc(phi):
    qml.Hadamard(wires=0)
    CustomGate(phi, theta, wires=0)
    return qml.expval(qml.PauliZ(0))

Warning

If you are providing custom operations not natively supported by PennyLane, it is recommended that the plugin unit tests do provide tests to ensure that PennyLane returns the correct gradient for the custom operations.

If the custom operation is diagonal in the computational basis, it is recommended to subclass DiagonalOperation. For diagonal operations, _eigvals has to be overridden instead of _matrix.

class CustomDiagonalGate(DiagonalOperation):
    """Custom gate"""
    num_params = 0
    num_wires = 2

    @classmethod
    def _eigvals(cls, *params):
        """Returns the eigenvalues of the operation in the computational basis."""
        return np.array([1j, 1j, -1j, -1j])

    @staticmethod
    def decomposition(*params, wires):
        """(Optional) Returns a list of PennyLane operations that decompose
        the custom gate."""
        return [qml.DiagonalQubitUnitary([1j, 1j, -1j, -1j], wires=wires)]

Supporting new observables

Custom observables can be added in an identical manner to operations above, but with three small changes:

• The Observable class should instead be subclassed.

• The class attribute eigvals should be defined, returning the eigenvalues of the observable.

• The method diagonalizing_gates() should be defined. This method returns a list of PennyLane Operation objects that diagonalize the observable in the computational basis. This is used to support devices that can only perform measurements in the computational basis.

For example:

class CustomObservable(Observable):
    """Custom observable"""
    num_params = 0
    num_wires = 1
    par_domain = None
    eigvals = np.array([0.2, 0.1])

    def diagonalizing_gates(self):
        return [PauliX(wires=self.wires), Hadamard(wires=self.wires)]

    @staticmethod
    def _matrix(*params):
        return np.array([[0, 1], [1, 0]]) / math.sqrt(2)

CV devices and operations (click to expand)

Note: CV devices currently subclass from the base Device class. However, this class is deprecated, and a new CVDevice class will be available soon.

For custom continuous-variable operations or observables, the CVOperation or CVObservable classes must be subclassed instead.

In addition, for Gaussian CV operations, you may need to provide the static class method _heisenberg_rep() that returns the Heisenberg representation of the operator given its list of parameters:

class Custom(CVOperation):
    """Custom gate"""
    n_params = 2
    n_wires = 1
    par_domain = 'R'
    grad_method = 'A'
    grad_recipe = None

    @staticmethod
    def _heisenberg_rep(params):
        return function(params)

• For operations, the _heisenberg_rep method should return the matrix of the linear transformation carried out by the gate for the given parameter values. This is used internally for calculating the gradient using the analytic method (grad_method = 'A').

• For observables, this method should return a real vector (first-order observables) or symmetric matrix (second-order observables) of coefficients which represent the expansion of the observable in the basis of monomials of the quadrature operators.

  • For single-mode Operations we use the basis \(\mathbf{r} = (\I, \x, \p)\).

  • For multi-mode Operations we use the basis \(\mathbf{r} = (\I, \x_0, \p_0, \x_1, \p_1, \ldots)\), where \(\x_k\) and \(\p_k\) are the quadrature operators of qumode \(k\).

Non-Gaussian CV operations and observables are currently only supported via the finite difference method of gradient computation.