Source code for pennylane._qubit_device
# Copyright 2018-2021 Xanadu Quantum Technologies Inc.
# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
# You may obtain a copy of the License at
# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
# limitations under the License.
"""
This module contains the :class:`QubitDevice` abstract base class.
"""
# For now, arguments may be different from the signatures provided in Device
# e.g. instead of expval(self, observable, wires, par) have expval(self, observable)
# pylint: disable=arguments-differ, abstract-method, no-value-for-parameter,too-many-instance-attributes,too-many-branches, no-member, bad-option-value, arguments-renamed
# pylint: disable=too-many-arguments
import abc
import itertools
import warnings
from collections import defaultdict
from typing import Union, List
import inspect
import logging
import numpy as np
import pennylane as qml
from pennylane import Device, DeviceError
from pennylane.math import multiply as qmlmul
from pennylane.math import sum as qmlsum
from pennylane.measurements import (
ClassicalShadowMP,
CountsMP,
ExpectationMP,
MeasurementProcess,
MeasurementTransform,
MeasurementValue,
MutualInfoMP,
ProbabilityMP,
SampleMeasurement,
SampleMP,
ShadowExpvalMP,
StateMeasurement,
StateMP,
VarianceMP,
VnEntropyMP,
Shots,
)
from pennylane.resource import Resources
from pennylane.operation import operation_derivative, Operation
from pennylane.tape import QuantumTape
from pennylane.wires import Wires
logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())
def _sample_to_str(sample):
"""Converts a bit-array to a string. For example, ``[0, 1]`` would become '01'."""
return "".join(map(str, sample))
[docs]class QubitDevice(Device):
"""Abstract base class for PennyLane qubit devices.
The following abstract method **must** be defined:
* :meth:`~.apply`: append circuit operations, compile the circuit (if applicable),
and perform the quantum computation.
Devices that generate their own samples (such as hardware) may optionally
overwrite :meth:`~.probability`. This method otherwise automatically
computes the probabilities from the generated samples, and **must**
overwrite the following method:
* :meth:`~.generate_samples`: Generate samples from the device from the
exact or approximate probability distribution.
Analytic devices **must** overwrite the following method:
* :meth:`~.analytic_probability`: returns the probability or marginal probability from the
device after circuit execution. :meth:`~.marginal_prob` may be used here.
This device contains common utility methods for qubit-based devices. These
do not need to be overwritten. Utility methods include:
* :meth:`~.expval`, :meth:`~.var`, :meth:`~.sample`: return expectation values,
variances, and samples of observables after the circuit has been rotated
into the observable eigenbasis.
Args:
wires (int, Iterable[Number, str]]): Number of subsystems represented by the device,
or iterable that contains unique labels for the subsystems as numbers (i.e., ``[-1, 0, 2]``)
or strings (``['ancilla', 'q1', 'q2']``). Default 1 if not specified.
shots (None, int, list[int]): Number of circuit evaluations/random samples used to estimate
expectation values of observables. If ``None``, the device calculates probability, expectation values,
and variances analytically. If an integer, it specifies the number of samples to estimate these quantities.
If a list of integers is passed, the circuit evaluations are batched over the list of shots.
r_dtype: Real floating point precision type.
c_dtype: Complex floating point precision type.
"""
# pylint: disable=too-many-public-methods
_asarray = staticmethod(np.asarray)
_dot = staticmethod(np.dot)
_abs = staticmethod(np.abs)
_reduce_sum = staticmethod(lambda array, axes: np.sum(array, axis=tuple(axes)))
_reshape = staticmethod(np.reshape)
_flatten = staticmethod(lambda array: array.flatten())
_gather = staticmethod(
lambda array, indices, axis=0: array[:, indices] if axis == 1 else array[indices]
) # Make sure to only use _gather with axis=0 or axis=1
_einsum = staticmethod(np.einsum)
_cast = staticmethod(np.asarray)
_transpose = staticmethod(np.transpose)
_tensordot = staticmethod(np.tensordot)
_conj = staticmethod(np.conj)
_imag = staticmethod(np.imag)
_roll = staticmethod(np.roll)
_stack = staticmethod(np.stack)
_outer = staticmethod(np.outer)
_diag = staticmethod(np.diag)
_real = staticmethod(np.real)
_size = staticmethod(np.size)
_ndim = staticmethod(np.ndim)
@staticmethod
def _scatter(indices, array, new_dimensions):
new_array = np.zeros(new_dimensions, dtype=array.dtype.type)
new_array[indices] = array
return new_array
@staticmethod
def _const_mul(constant, array):
"""Data type preserving multiply operation"""
return qmlmul(constant, array, dtype=array.dtype)
observables = {
"PauliX",
"PauliY",
"PauliZ",
"Hadamard",
"Hermitian",
"Identity",
"Projector",
"Sum",
"Sprod",
"Prod",
}
measurement_map = defaultdict(lambda: "") # e.g. {SampleMP: "sample"}
"""Mapping used to override the logic of measurement processes. The dictionary maps a
measurement class to a string containing the name of a device's method that overrides the
measurement process. The method defined by the device should have the following arguments:
* measurement (MeasurementProcess): measurement to override
* shot_range (tuple[int]): 2-tuple of integers specifying the range of samples
to use. If not specified, all samples are used.
* bin_size (int): Divides the shot range into bins of size ``bin_size``, and
returns the measurement statistic separately over each bin. If not
provided, the entire shot range is treated as a single bin.
.. note::
When overriding the logic of a :class:`~pennylane.measurements.MeasurementTransform`, the
method defined by the device should only have a single argument:
* tape: quantum tape to transform
**Example:**
Let's create a device that inherits from :class:`~pennylane.devices.DefaultQubitLegacy` and overrides the
logic of the `qml.sample` measurement. To do so we will need to update the ``measurement_map``
dictionary:
.. code-block:: python
class NewDevice(DefaultQubitLegacy):
def __init__(self, wires, shots):
super().__init__(wires=wires, shots=shots)
self.measurement_map[SampleMP] = "sample_measurement"
def sample_measurement(self, measurement, shot_range=None, bin_size=None):
return 2
>>> dev = NewDevice(wires=2, shots=1000)
>>> @qml.qnode(dev)
... def circuit():
... return qml.sample()
>>> circuit()
tensor(2, requires_grad=True)
"""
def __init__(
self, wires=1, shots=None, *, r_dtype=np.float64, c_dtype=np.complex128, analytic=None
):
super().__init__(wires=wires, shots=shots, analytic=analytic)
if "float" not in str(r_dtype):
raise DeviceError("Real datatype must be a floating point type.")
if "complex" not in str(c_dtype):
raise DeviceError("Complex datatype must be a complex floating point type.")
self.C_DTYPE = c_dtype
self.R_DTYPE = r_dtype
self._samples = None
"""None or array[int]: stores the samples generated by the device
*after* rotation to diagonalize the observables."""
[docs] @classmethod
def capabilities(cls):
capabilities = super().capabilities().copy()
capabilities.update(
model="qubit",
supports_broadcasting=False,
supports_finite_shots=True,
supports_tensor_observables=True,
returns_probs=True,
)
return capabilities
[docs] def reset(self):
"""Reset the backend state.
After the reset, the backend should be as if it was just constructed.
Most importantly the quantum state is reset to its initial value.
"""
self._samples = None
[docs] def execute(self, circuit, **kwargs):
"""It executes a queue of quantum operations on the device and then measure the given observables.
For plugin developers: instead of overwriting this, consider
implementing a suitable subset of
* :meth:`apply`
* :meth:`~.generate_samples`
* :meth:`~.probability`
Additional keyword arguments may be passed to this method
that can be utilised by :meth:`apply`. An example would be passing
the ``QNode`` hash that can be used later for parametric compilation.
Args:
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): circuit to execute on the device
Raises:
QuantumFunctionError: if the value of :attr:`~.Observable.return_type` is not supported
Returns:
array[float]: measured value(s)
"""
if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
logger.debug(
"Entry with args=(circuit=%s, kwargs=%s) called by=%s",
circuit,
kwargs,
"::L".join(
str(i) for i in inspect.getouterframes(inspect.currentframe(), 2)[1][1:3]
),
)
self.check_validity(circuit.operations, circuit.observables)
# apply all circuit operations
self.apply(circuit.operations, rotations=self._get_diagonalizing_gates(circuit), **kwargs)
# generate computational basis samples
sample_type = (SampleMP, CountsMP, ClassicalShadowMP, ShadowExpvalMP)
if self.shots is not None or any(isinstance(m, sample_type) for m in circuit.measurements):
# Lightning does not support apply(rotations) anymore, so we need to rotate here
# Lightning without binaries fallbacks to `QubitDevice`, and hence the _CPP_BINARY_AVAILABLE condition
is_lightning = (
hasattr(self, "name")
and isinstance(self.name, str)
and "Lightning" in self.name
and getattr(self, "_CPP_BINARY_AVAILABLE", False)
)
diagonalizing_gates = self._get_diagonalizing_gates(circuit) if is_lightning else None
if is_lightning and diagonalizing_gates:
self.apply(diagonalizing_gates)
self._samples = self.generate_samples()
if is_lightning and diagonalizing_gates:
self.apply([qml.adjoint(g, lazy=False) for g in reversed(diagonalizing_gates)])
# compute the required statistics
if self._shot_vector is not None:
results = self.shot_vec_statistics(circuit)
else:
results = self.statistics(circuit)
single_measurement = len(circuit.measurements) == 1
results = results[0] if single_measurement else tuple(results)
# increment counter for number of executions of qubit device
self._num_executions += 1
if self.tracker.active:
shots_from_dev = self._shots if not self.shot_vector else self._raw_shot_sequence
tape_resources = circuit.specs["resources"]
resources = Resources( # temporary until shots get updated on tape !
tape_resources.num_wires,
tape_resources.num_gates,
tape_resources.gate_types,
tape_resources.gate_sizes,
tape_resources.depth,
Shots(shots_from_dev),
)
self.tracker.update(
executions=1, shots=self._shots, results=results, resources=resources
)
self.tracker.record()
return results
[docs] def shot_vec_statistics(self, circuit: QuantumTape):
"""Process measurement results from circuit execution using a device
with a shot vector and return statistics.
This is an auxiliary method of execute and uses statistics.
When using shot vectors, measurement results for each item of the shot
vector are contained in a tuple.
Args:
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): circuit to execute on the device
Raises:
QuantumFunctionError: if the value of :attr:`~.Observable.return_type` is not supported
Returns:
tuple: statistics for each shot item from the shot vector
"""
results = []
s1 = 0
measurements = circuit.measurements
counts_exist = any(isinstance(m, CountsMP) for m in measurements)
single_measurement = len(measurements) == 1
for shot_tuple in self._shot_vector:
s2 = s1 + np.prod(shot_tuple)
r = self.statistics(circuit, shot_range=[s1, s2], bin_size=shot_tuple.shots)
# This will likely be required:
# if qml.math.get_interface(*r) == "jax": # pylint: disable=protected-access
# r = r[0]
if single_measurement:
r = r[0]
elif shot_tuple.copies == 1:
r = tuple(r_[0] if isinstance(r_, list) else r_.T for r_ in r)
elif counts_exist:
r = self._multi_meas_with_counts_shot_vec(circuit, shot_tuple, r)
else:
# r is a nested sequence, contains the results for
# multiple measurements
#
# Each item of r has copies length, we need to extract
# each measurement result from the arrays
# 1. transpose: applied because measurements like probs
# for multiple copies output results with shape (N,
# copies) and we'd like to index straight to get rows
# which requires a shape of (copies, N)
# 2. asarray: done because indexing into a flat array produces a
# scalar instead of a scalar shaped array
r = [
tuple(self._asarray(r_.T[idx]) for r_ in r) for idx in range(shot_tuple.copies)
]
if isinstance(r, qml.numpy.ndarray):
if shot_tuple.copies > 1:
results.extend([self._asarray(r_) for r_ in qml.math.unstack(r.T)])
else:
results.append(r.T)
elif single_measurement and counts_exist:
# Results are nested in a sequence
results.extend(r)
elif not single_measurement and shot_tuple.copies > 1:
# Some samples may still be transposed, fix their shapes
# Leave dictionaries intact
r = [tuple(elem if isinstance(elem, dict) else elem.T for elem in r_) for r_ in r]
results.extend(r)
else:
results.append(r)
s1 = s2
return tuple(results)
def _multi_meas_with_counts_shot_vec(self, circuit: QuantumTape, shot_tuple, r):
"""Auxiliary function of the shot_vec_statistics and execute
functions for post-processing the results of multiple measurements at
least one of which was a counts measurement.
The measurements were executed on a device that defines a shot vector.
"""
# First: iterate over each group of measurement
# results that contain copies many outcomes for a
# single measurement
new_r = []
# Each item of r has copies length
for idx in range(shot_tuple.copies):
result_group = []
for idx2, r_ in enumerate(r):
measurement_proc = circuit.measurements[idx2]
if isinstance(measurement_proc, ProbabilityMP) or (
isinstance(measurement_proc, SampleMP) and measurement_proc.obs
):
# Here, the result has a shape of (num_basis_states, shot_tuple.copies)
# Extract a single row -> shape (num_basis_states,)
result = r_[:, idx]
else:
result = r_[idx]
if not isinstance(measurement_proc, CountsMP):
result = self._asarray(result.T)
result_group.append(result)
new_r.append(tuple(result_group))
return new_r
[docs] def batch_execute(self, circuits):
"""Execute a batch of quantum circuits on the device.
The circuits are represented by tapes, and they are executed one-by-one using the
device's ``execute`` method. The results are collected in a list.
For plugin developers: This function should be overwritten if the device can efficiently run multiple
circuits on a backend, for example using parallel and/or asynchronous executions.
Args:
circuits (list[~.tape.QuantumTape]): circuits to execute on the device
Returns:
list[array[float]]: list of measured value(s)
"""
if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
logger.debug(
"""Entry with args=(circuits=%s) called by=%s""",
circuits,
"::L".join(
str(i) for i in inspect.getouterframes(inspect.currentframe(), 2)[1][1:3]
),
)
results = []
for circuit in circuits:
# we need to reset the device here, else it will
# not start the next computation in the zero state
self.reset()
res = self.execute(circuit)
results.append(res)
if self.tracker.active:
self.tracker.update(batches=1, batch_len=len(circuits))
self.tracker.record()
return results
[docs] @abc.abstractmethod
def apply(self, operations, **kwargs):
"""Apply quantum operations, rotate the circuit into the measurement
basis, and compile and execute the quantum circuit.
This method receives a list of quantum operations queued by the QNode,
and should be responsible for:
* Constructing the quantum program
* (Optional) Rotating the quantum circuit using the rotation
operations provided. This diagonalizes the circuit so that arbitrary
observables can be measured in the computational basis.
* Compile the circuit
* Execute the quantum circuit
Both arguments are provided as lists of PennyLane :class:`~.Operation`
instances. Useful properties include :attr:`~.Operation.name`,
:attr:`~.Operation.wires`, and :attr:`~.Operation.parameters`:
>>> op = qml.RX(0.2, wires=[0])
>>> op.name # returns the operation name
"RX"
>>> op.wires # returns a Wires object representing the wires that the operation acts on
<Wires = [0]>
>>> op.parameters # returns a list of parameters
[0.2]
Args:
operations (list[~.Operation]): operations to apply to the device
Keyword args:
rotations (list[~.Operation]): operations that rotate the circuit
pre-measurement into the eigenbasis of the observables.
hash (int): the hash value of the circuit constructed by `CircuitGraph.hash`
"""
[docs] @staticmethod
def active_wires(operators):
"""Returns the wires acted on by a set of operators.
Args:
operators (list[~.Operation]): operators for which
we are gathering the active wires
Returns:
Wires: wires activated by the specified operators
"""
list_of_wires = [op.wires for op in operators]
return Wires.all_wires(list_of_wires)
def _measure(
self,
measurement: Union[SampleMeasurement, StateMeasurement],
shot_range=None,
bin_size=None,
):
"""Compute the corresponding measurement process depending on ``shots`` and the measurement
type.
Args:
measurement (Union[SampleMeasurement, StateMeasurement]): measurement process
shot_range (tuple[int]): 2-tuple of integers specifying the range of samples
to use. If not specified, all samples are used.
bin_size (int): Divides the shot range into bins of size ``bin_size``, and
returns the measurement statistic separately over each bin. If not
provided, the entire shot range is treated as a single bin.
Raises:
ValueError: if the measurement cannot be computed
Returns:
Union[float, dict, list[float]]: result of the measurement
"""
if self.shots is None:
if isinstance(measurement, StateMeasurement):
return measurement.process_state(state=self.state, wire_order=self.wires)
raise ValueError(
"Shots must be specified in the device to compute the measurement "
f"{measurement.__class__.__name__}"
)
if isinstance(measurement, StateMeasurement):
warnings.warn(
f"Requested measurement {measurement.__class__.__name__} with finite shots; the "
"returned state information is analytic and is unaffected by sampling. "
"To silence this warning, set shots=None on the device.",
UserWarning,
)
return measurement.process_state(state=self.state, wire_order=self.wires)
return measurement.process_samples(
samples=self._samples, wire_order=self.wires, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size
)
[docs] def statistics(
self, circuit: QuantumTape, shot_range=None, bin_size=None
): # pylint: disable=too-many-statements
"""Process measurement results from circuit execution and return statistics.
This includes returning expectation values, variance, samples, probabilities, states, and
density matrices.
Args:
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): the quantum tape currently being executed
shot_range (tuple[int]): 2-tuple of integers specifying the range of samples
to use. If not specified, all samples are used.
bin_size (int): Divides the shot range into bins of size ``bin_size``, and
returns the measurement statistic separately over each bin. If not
provided, the entire shot range is treated as a single bin.
Raises:
QuantumFunctionError: if the value of :attr:`~.Observable.return_type` is not supported
Returns:
Union[float, List[float]]: the corresponding statistics
.. details::
:title: Usage Details
The ``shot_range`` and ``bin_size`` arguments allow for the statistics
to be performed on only a subset of device samples. This finer level
of control is accessible from the main UI by instantiating a device
with a batch of shots.
For example, consider the following device:
>>> dev = qml.device("my_device", shots=[5, (10, 3), 100])
This device will execute QNodes using 135 shots, however
measurement statistics will be **course grained** across these 135
shots:
* All measurement statistics will first be computed using the
first 5 shots --- that is, ``shots_range=[0, 5]``, ``bin_size=5``.
* Next, the tuple ``(10, 3)`` indicates 10 shots, repeated 3 times. We will want to use
``shot_range=[5, 35]``, performing the expectation value in bins of size 10
(``bin_size=10``).
* Finally, we repeat the measurement statistics for the final 100 shots,
``shot_range=[35, 135]``, ``bin_size=100``.
"""
measurements = circuit.measurements
results = []
for m in measurements:
# TODO: Remove this when all overriden measurements support the `MeasurementProcess` class
if isinstance(m.mv, list):
# MeasurementProcess stores information needed for processing if terminal measurement
# uses a list of mid-circuit measurement values
obs = m
else:
obs = m.obs or m.mv or m
# Check if there is an overriden version of the measurement process
if method := getattr(self, self.measurement_map[type(m)], False):
if isinstance(m, MeasurementTransform):
result = method(tape=circuit)
else:
result = method(m, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
# 1. Based on the measurement type, compute statistics
# Pass instances directly
elif isinstance(m, ExpectationMP):
result = self.expval(obs, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
elif isinstance(m, VarianceMP):
result = self.var(obs, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
elif isinstance(m, SampleMP):
samples = self.sample(obs, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size, counts=False)
result = self._asarray(qml.math.squeeze(samples))
elif isinstance(m, CountsMP):
result = self.sample(m, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size, counts=True)
elif isinstance(m, ProbabilityMP):
result = self.probability(wires=m.wires, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
elif isinstance(m, StateMP):
if len(measurements) > 1:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"The state or density matrix cannot be returned in combination "
"with other return types"
)
if self.shots is not None:
warnings.warn(
"Requested state or density matrix with finite shots; the returned "
"state information is analytic and is unaffected by sampling. To silence "
"this warning, set shots=None on the device.",
UserWarning,
)
# Check if the state is accessible and decide to return the state or the density
# matrix.
state = self.access_state(wires=obs.wires)
result = self._asarray(state, dtype=self.C_DTYPE)
elif isinstance(m, VnEntropyMP):
if self.wires.labels != tuple(range(self.num_wires)):
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Returning the Von Neumann entropy is not supported when using custom wire labels"
)
if self._shot_vector is not None:
raise NotImplementedError(
"Returning the Von Neumann entropy is not supported with shot vectors."
)
if self.shots is not None:
warnings.warn(
"Requested Von Neumann entropy with finite shots; the returned "
"result is analytic and is unaffected by sampling. To silence "
"this warning, set shots=None on the device.",
UserWarning,
)
result = self.vn_entropy(wires=obs.wires, log_base=obs.log_base)
elif isinstance(m, MutualInfoMP):
if self.wires.labels != tuple(range(self.num_wires)):
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Returning the mutual information is not supported when using custom wire labels"
)
if self._shot_vector is not None:
raise NotImplementedError(
"Returning the mutual information is not supported with shot vectors."
)
if self.shots is not None:
warnings.warn(
"Requested mutual information with finite shots; the returned "
"state information is analytic and is unaffected by sampling. To silence "
"this warning, set shots=None on the device.",
UserWarning,
)
wires0, wires1 = obs.raw_wires
result = self.mutual_info(wires0=wires0, wires1=wires1, log_base=obs.log_base)
elif isinstance(m, ClassicalShadowMP):
if len(measurements) > 1:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Classical shadows cannot be returned in combination "
"with other return types"
)
result = self.classical_shadow(obs, circuit)
elif isinstance(m, ShadowExpvalMP):
if len(measurements) > 1:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Classical shadows cannot be returned in combination "
"with other return types"
)
result = self.shadow_expval(obs, circuit=circuit)
elif isinstance(m, MeasurementTransform):
result = m.process(tape=circuit, device=self)
elif isinstance(m, (SampleMeasurement, StateMeasurement)):
result = self._measure(m, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
elif m.return_type is not None:
name = obs.name if isinstance(obs, qml.operation.Operator) else type(obs).__name__
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
f"Unsupported return type specified for observable {name}"
)
else:
result = None
# 2. Post-process statistics results (if need be)
if isinstance(
m,
(
ExpectationMP,
VarianceMP,
ProbabilityMP,
VnEntropyMP,
MutualInfoMP,
ShadowExpvalMP,
),
):
# Result is a float
result = self._asarray(result, dtype=self.R_DTYPE)
if self._shot_vector is not None and isinstance(result, np.ndarray):
# In the shot vector case, measurement results may be of shape (N, 1) instead of (N,)
# Squeeze the result to transform the results
#
# E.g.,
# before:
# [[0.489]
# [0.511]
# [0. ]
# [0. ]]
#
# after: [0.489 0.511 0. 0. ]
result = qml.math.squeeze(result)
# 3. Append to final list
if result is not None:
results.append(result)
return results
[docs] def access_state(self, wires=None):
"""Check that the device has access to an internal state and return it if available.
Args:
wires (Wires): wires of the reduced system
Raises:
QuantumFunctionError: if the device is not capable of returning the state
Returns:
array or tensor: the state or the density matrix of the device
"""
if not self.capabilities().get("returns_state"):
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"The current device is not capable of returning the state"
)
state = getattr(self, "state", None)
if state is None:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError("The state is not available in the current device")
if wires:
density_matrix = self.density_matrix(wires)
return density_matrix
return state
[docs] def generate_samples(self):
r"""Returns the computational basis samples generated for all wires.
Note that PennyLane uses the convention :math:`|q_0,q_1,\dots,q_{N-1}\rangle` where
:math:`q_0` is the most significant bit.
.. warning::
This method should be overwritten on devices that
generate their own computational basis samples, with the resulting
computational basis samples stored as ``self._samples``.
Returns:
array[complex]: array of samples in the shape ``(dev.shots, dev.num_wires)``
"""
number_of_states = 2**self.num_wires
rotated_prob = self.analytic_probability()
samples = self.sample_basis_states(number_of_states, rotated_prob)
return self.states_to_binary(samples, self.num_wires)
[docs] def sample_basis_states(self, number_of_states, state_probability):
"""Sample from the computational basis states based on the state
probability.
This is an auxiliary method to the generate_samples method.
Args:
number_of_states (int): the number of basis states to sample from
state_probability (array[float]): the computational basis probability vector
Returns:
array[int]: the sampled basis states
"""
if self.shots is None:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"The number of shots has to be explicitly set on the device "
"when using sample-based measurements."
)
shots = self.shots
basis_states = np.arange(number_of_states)
if self._ndim(state_probability) == 2:
# np.random.choice does not support broadcasting as needed here.
return np.array(
[np.random.choice(basis_states, shots, p=prob) for prob in state_probability]
)
return np.random.choice(basis_states, shots, p=state_probability)
[docs] @staticmethod
def generate_basis_states(num_wires, dtype=np.uint32):
"""
Generates basis states in binary representation according to the number
of wires specified.
The states_to_binary method creates basis states faster (for larger
systems at times over x25 times faster) than the approach using
``itertools.product``, at the expense of using slightly more memory.
Due to the large size of the integer arrays for more than 32 bits,
memory allocation errors may arise in the states_to_binary method.
Hence we constraint the dtype of the array to represent unsigned
integers on 32 bits. Due to this constraint, an overflow occurs for 32
or more wires, therefore this approach is used only for fewer wires.
For smaller number of wires speed is comparable to the next approach
(using ``itertools.product``), hence we resort to that one for testing
purposes.
Args:
num_wires (int): the number wires
dtype=np.uint32 (type): the data type of the arrays to use
Returns:
array[int]: the sampled basis states
"""
if 2 < num_wires < 32:
states_base_ten = np.arange(2**num_wires, dtype=dtype)
return QubitDevice.states_to_binary(states_base_ten, num_wires, dtype=dtype)
# A slower, but less memory intensive method
basis_states_generator = itertools.product((0, 1), repeat=num_wires)
return np.fromiter(itertools.chain(*basis_states_generator), dtype=int).reshape(
-1, num_wires
)
[docs] @staticmethod
def states_to_binary(samples, num_wires, dtype=np.int64):
"""Convert basis states from base 10 to binary representation.
This is an auxiliary method to the generate_samples method.
Args:
samples (array[int]): samples of basis states in base 10 representation
num_wires (int): the number of qubits
dtype (type): Type of the internal integer array to be used. Can be
important to specify for large systems for memory allocation
purposes.
Returns:
array[int]: basis states in binary representation
"""
powers_of_two = 1 << np.arange(num_wires, dtype=dtype)
# `samples` typically is one-dimensional, but can be two-dimensional with broadcasting.
# In any case we want to append a new axis at the *end* of the shape.
states_sampled_base_ten = samples[..., None] & powers_of_two
# `states_sampled_base_ten` can be two- or three-dimensional. We revert the *last* axis.
return (states_sampled_base_ten > 0).astype(dtype)[..., ::-1]
@property
def circuit_hash(self):
"""The hash of the circuit upon the last execution.
This can be used by devices in :meth:`~.apply` for parametric compilation.
"""
raise NotImplementedError
@property
def state(self):
"""Returns the state vector of the circuit prior to measurement.
.. note::
Only state vector simulators support this property. Please see the
plugin documentation for more details.
"""
raise NotImplementedError
[docs] def density_matrix(self, wires):
"""Returns the reduced density matrix over the given wires.
Args:
wires (Wires): wires of the reduced system
Returns:
array[complex]: complex array of shape ``(2 ** len(wires), 2 ** len(wires))``
representing the reduced density matrix of the state prior to measurement.
"""
state = getattr(self, "state", None)
wires = self.map_wires(wires)
return qml.math.reduce_statevector(state, indices=wires, c_dtype=self.C_DTYPE)
[docs] def vn_entropy(self, wires, log_base):
r"""Returns the Von Neumann entropy prior to measurement.
.. math::
S( \rho ) = -\text{Tr}( \rho \log ( \rho ))
Args:
wires (Wires): Wires of the considered subsystem.
log_base (float): Base for the logarithm, default is None the natural logarithm is used in this case.
Returns:
float: returns the Von Neumann entropy
"""
try:
state = self.density_matrix(wires=self.wires)
except qml.QuantumFunctionError as e: # pragma: no cover
raise NotImplementedError(
f"Cannot compute the Von Neumman entropy with device {self.name} that is not capable of returning the "
f"state. "
) from e
wires = wires.tolist()
return qml.math.vn_entropy(state, indices=wires, c_dtype=self.C_DTYPE, base=log_base)
[docs] def mutual_info(self, wires0, wires1, log_base):
r"""Returns the mutual information prior to measurement:
.. math::
I(A, B) = S(\rho^A) + S(\rho^B) - S(\rho^{AB})
where :math:`S` is the von Neumann entropy.
Args:
wires0 (Wires): wires of the first subsystem
wires1 (Wires): wires of the second subsystem
log_base (float): base to use in the logarithm
Returns:
float: the mutual information
"""
try:
state = self.density_matrix(wires=self.wires)
except qml.QuantumFunctionError as e: # pragma: no cover
raise NotImplementedError(
f"Cannot compute the mutual information with device {self.name} that is not capable of returning the "
f"state. "
) from e
wires0 = wires0.tolist()
wires1 = wires1.tolist()
return qml.math.mutual_info(
state, indices0=wires0, indices1=wires1, c_dtype=self.C_DTYPE, base=log_base
)
[docs] def classical_shadow(self, obs, circuit):
"""
Returns the measured bits and recipes in the classical shadow protocol.
The protocol is described in detail in the `classical shadows paper <https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.08953>`_.
This measurement process returns the randomized Pauli measurements (the ``recipes``)
that are performed for each qubit and snapshot as an integer:
- 0 for Pauli X,
- 1 for Pauli Y, and
- 2 for Pauli Z.
It also returns the measurement results (the ``bits``); 0 if the 1 eigenvalue
is sampled, and 1 if the -1 eigenvalue is sampled.
The device shots are used to specify the number of snapshots. If ``T`` is the number
of shots and ``n`` is the number of qubits, then both the measured bits and the
Pauli measurements have shape ``(T, n)``.
This implementation is device-agnostic and works by executing single-shot
tapes containing randomized Pauli observables. Devices should override this
if they can offer cleaner or faster implementations.
.. seealso:: :func:`~.pennylane.classical_shadow`
Args:
obs (~.pennylane.measurements.ClassicalShadowMP): The classical shadow measurement process
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): The quantum tape that is being executed
Returns:
tensor_like[int]: A tensor with shape ``(2, T, n)``, where the first row represents
the measured bits and the second represents the recipes used.
"""
if circuit is None: # pragma: no cover
raise ValueError("Circuit must be provided when measuring classical shadows")
wires = obs.wires
n_snapshots = self.shots
seed = obs.seed
with qml.workflow.set_shots(self, shots=1):
# slow implementation but works for all devices
n_qubits = len(wires)
mapped_wires = np.array(self.map_wires(wires))
# seed the random measurement generation so that recipes
# are the same for different executions with the same seed
rng = np.random.RandomState(seed)
recipes = rng.randint(0, 3, size=(n_snapshots, n_qubits))
obs_list = [qml.X, qml.Y, qml.Z]
outcomes = np.zeros((n_snapshots, n_qubits))
for t in range(n_snapshots):
# compute rotations for the Pauli measurements
rotations = [
rot
for wire_idx, wire in enumerate(wires)
for rot in obs_list[recipes[t][wire_idx]].compute_diagonalizing_gates(
wires=wire
)
]
self.reset()
self.apply(
circuit.operations, rotations=self._get_diagonalizing_gates(circuit) + rotations
)
outcomes[t] = self.generate_samples()[0][mapped_wires]
return self._cast(self._stack([outcomes, recipes]), dtype=np.int8)
[docs] def shadow_expval(self, obs, circuit):
r"""Compute expectation values using classical shadows in a differentiable manner.
Please refer to :func:`~.pennylane.shadow_expval` for detailed documentation.
Args:
obs (~.pennylane.measurements.ClassicalShadowMP): The classical shadow expectation
value measurement process
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): The quantum tape that is being executed
Returns:
float: expectation value estimate.
"""
bits, recipes = self.classical_shadow(obs, circuit)
shadow = qml.shadows.ClassicalShadow(bits, recipes, wire_map=obs.wires.tolist())
return shadow.expval(obs.H, obs.k)
[docs] def analytic_probability(self, wires=None):
r"""Return the (marginal) probability of each computational basis
state from the last run of the device.
PennyLane uses the convention
:math:`|q_0,q_1,\dots,q_{N-1}\rangle` where :math:`q_0` is the most
significant bit.
If no wires are specified, then all the basis states representable by
the device are considered and no marginalization takes place.
.. note::
:meth:`~.marginal_prob` may be used as a utility method
to calculate the marginal probability distribution.
Args:
wires (Iterable[Number, str], Number, str, Wires): wires to return
marginal probabilities for. Wires not provided are traced out of the system.
Returns:
array[float]: list of the probabilities
"""
raise NotImplementedError
[docs] def estimate_probability(self, wires=None, shot_range=None, bin_size=None):
"""Return the estimated probability of each computational basis state
using the generated samples.
Args:
wires (Iterable[Number, str], Number, str, Wires): wires to calculate
marginal probabilities for. Wires not provided are traced out of the system.
shot_range (tuple[int]): 2-tuple of integers specifying the range of samples
to use. If not specified, all samples are used.
bin_size (int): Divides the shot range into bins of size ``bin_size``, and
returns the measurement statistic separately over each bin. If not
provided, the entire shot range is treated as a single bin.
Returns:
array[float]: list of the probabilities
"""
wires = wires or self.wires
# convert to a Wires object
wires = Wires(wires)
# translate to wire labels used by device
device_wires = self.map_wires(wires)
num_wires = len(device_wires)
if shot_range is None:
# The Ellipsis (...) corresponds to broadcasting and shots dimensions or only shots
samples = self._samples[..., device_wires]
else:
# The Ellipsis (...) corresponds to the broadcasting dimension or no axis at all
samples = self._samples[..., slice(*shot_range), device_wires]
# convert samples from a list of 0, 1 integers, to base 10 representation
powers_of_two = 2 ** np.arange(num_wires)[::-1]
indices = samples @ powers_of_two
# `self._samples` typically has two axes ((shots, wires)) but can also have three with
# broadcasting ((batch_size, shots, wires)) so that we simply read out the batch_size.
batch_size = self._samples.shape[0] if np.ndim(self._samples) == 3 else None
dim = 2**num_wires
# count the basis state occurrences, and construct the probability vector
if bin_size is not None:
num_bins = samples.shape[-2] // bin_size
prob = self._count_binned_samples(indices, batch_size, dim, bin_size, num_bins)
else:
prob = self._count_unbinned_samples(indices, batch_size, dim)
return self._asarray(prob, dtype=self.R_DTYPE)
@staticmethod
def _count_unbinned_samples(indices, batch_size, dim):
"""Count the occurences of sampled indices and convert them to relative
counts in order to estimate their occurence probability."""
if batch_size is None:
prob = np.zeros(dim, dtype=np.float64)
basis_states, counts = np.unique(indices, return_counts=True)
prob[basis_states] = counts / len(indices)
return prob
prob = np.zeros((batch_size, dim), dtype=np.float64)
for i, idx in enumerate(indices): # iterate over the broadcasting dimension
basis_states, counts = np.unique(idx, return_counts=True)
prob[i, basis_states] = counts / len(idx)
return prob
@staticmethod
def _count_binned_samples(indices, batch_size, dim, bin_size, num_bins):
"""Count the occurences of bins of sampled indices and convert them to relative
counts in order to estimate their occurence probability per bin."""
if batch_size is None:
prob = np.zeros((dim, num_bins), dtype=np.float64)
indices = indices.reshape((num_bins, bin_size))
# count the basis state occurrences, and construct the probability vector for each bin
for b, idx in enumerate(indices):
basis_states, counts = np.unique(idx, return_counts=True)
prob[basis_states, b] = counts / bin_size
return prob
prob = np.zeros((batch_size, dim, num_bins), dtype=np.float64)
indices = indices.reshape((batch_size, num_bins, bin_size))
# count the basis state occurrences, and construct the probability vector
# for each bin and broadcasting index
for i, _indices in enumerate(indices): # First iterate over broadcasting dimension
for b, idx in enumerate(_indices): # Then iterate over bins dimension
basis_states, counts = np.unique(idx, return_counts=True)
prob[i, basis_states, b] = counts / bin_size
return prob
[docs] def probability(self, wires=None, shot_range=None, bin_size=None):
"""Return either the analytic probability or estimated probability of
each computational basis state.
Devices that require a finite number of shots always return the
estimated probability.
Args:
wires (Iterable[Number, str], Number, str, Wires): wires to return
marginal probabilities for. Wires not provided are traced out of the system.
Returns:
array[float]: list of the probabilities
"""
wires = wires or self.wires
if self.shots is None:
return self.analytic_probability(wires=wires)
return self.estimate_probability(wires=wires, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
@staticmethod
def _get_batch_size(tensor, expected_shape, expected_size):
"""Determine whether a tensor has an additional batch dimension for broadcasting,
compared to an expected_shape. As QubitDevice does not natively support broadcasting,
it always reports no batch size, that is ``batch_size=None``"""
# pylint: disable=unused-argument
return None
[docs] def marginal_prob(self, prob, wires=None):
r"""Return the marginal probability of the computational basis
states by summing the probabiliites on the non-specified wires.
If no wires are specified, then all the basis states representable by
the device are considered and no marginalization takes place.
.. note::
If the provided wires are not in the order as they appear on the device,
the returned marginal probabilities take this permutation into account.
For example, if the addressable wires on this device are ``Wires([0, 1, 2])`` and
this function gets passed ``wires=[2, 0]``, then the returned marginal
probability vector will take this 'reversal' of the two wires
into account:
.. math::
\mathbb{P}^{(2, 0)}
= \left[
|00\rangle, |10\rangle, |01\rangle, |11\rangle
\right]
Args:
prob: The probabilities to return the marginal probabilities
for
wires (Iterable[Number, str], Number, str, Wires): wires to return
marginal probabilities for. Wires not provided
are traced out of the system.
Returns:
array[float]: array of the resulting marginal probabilities.
"""
dim = 2**self.num_wires
batch_size = self._get_batch_size(prob, (dim,), dim) # pylint: disable=assignment-from-none
if wires is None:
# no need to marginalize
return prob
wires = Wires(wires)
# determine which subsystems are to be summed over
inactive_wires = Wires.unique_wires([self.wires, wires])
# translate to wire labels used by device
device_wires = self.map_wires(wires)
inactive_device_wires = self.map_wires(inactive_wires)
# hotfix to catch when default.qubit uses this method
# since then device_wires is a list
if isinstance(inactive_device_wires, Wires):
inactive_device_wires = inactive_device_wires.labels
# reshape the probability so that each axis corresponds to a wire
shape = [2] * self.num_wires
desired_axes = np.argsort(np.argsort(device_wires))
flat_shape = (-1,)
if batch_size is not None:
# prob now is reshaped to have self.num_wires+1 axes in the case of broadcasting
shape.insert(0, batch_size)
inactive_device_wires = [idx + 1 for idx in inactive_device_wires]
desired_axes = np.insert(desired_axes + 1, 0, 0)
flat_shape = (batch_size, -1)
prob = self._reshape(prob, shape)
# sum over all inactive wires
prob = self._reduce_sum(prob, inactive_device_wires)
# rearrange wires to desired order
prob = self._transpose(prob, desired_axes)
# flatten and return probabilities
return self._reshape(prob, flat_shape)
[docs] def expval(self, observable, shot_range=None, bin_size=None):
# exact expectation value
if self.shots is None:
try:
eigvals = self._asarray(
(
observable.eigvals()
if not isinstance(observable, MeasurementValue)
# Indexing a MeasurementValue gives the output of the processing function
# for that index as a binary number.
else [observable[i] for i in range(2 ** len(observable.measurements))]
),
dtype=self.R_DTYPE,
)
except qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError as e:
raise qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError(
f"Cannot compute analytic expectations of {observable.name}."
) from e
prob = self.probability(wires=observable.wires)
# In case of broadcasting, `prob` has two axes and this is a matrix-vector product
return self._dot(prob, eigvals)
# estimate the ev
samples = self.sample(observable, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
# With broadcasting, we want to take the mean over axis 1, which is the -1st/-2nd with/
# without bin_size. Without broadcasting, axis 0 is the -1st/-2nd with/without bin_size
axis = -1 if bin_size is None else -2
# TODO: do we need to squeeze here? Maybe remove with new return types
return np.squeeze(np.mean(samples, axis=axis))
[docs] def var(self, observable, shot_range=None, bin_size=None):
# exact variance value
if self.shots is None:
try:
eigvals = self._asarray(
(
observable.eigvals()
if not isinstance(observable, MeasurementValue)
# Indexing a MeasurementValue gives the output of the processing function
# for that index as a binary number.
else [observable[i] for i in range(2 ** len(observable.measurements))]
),
dtype=self.R_DTYPE,
)
except qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError as e:
# if observable has no info on eigenvalues, we cannot return this measurement
raise qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError(
f"Cannot compute analytic variance of {observable.name}."
) from e
prob = self.probability(wires=observable.wires)
# In case of broadcasting, `prob` has two axes and these are a matrix-vector products
return self._dot(prob, (eigvals**2)) - self._dot(prob, eigvals) ** 2
# estimate the variance
samples = self.sample(observable, shot_range=shot_range, bin_size=bin_size)
# With broadcasting, we want to take the variance over axis 1, which is the -1st/-2nd with/
# without bin_size. Without broadcasting, axis 0 is the -1st/-2nd with/without bin_size
axis = -1 if bin_size is None else -2
# TODO: do we need to squeeze here? Maybe remove with new return types
return np.squeeze(np.var(samples, axis=axis))
def _samples_to_counts(self, samples, mp: CountsMP, num_wires):
"""Groups the samples into a dictionary showing number of occurences for
each possible outcome.
The format of the dictionary depends on mp.return_type, which is set when
calling measurements.counts by setting the kwarg all_outcomes (bool). By default,
the dictionary will only contain the observed outcomes. Optionally (all_outcomes=True)
the dictionary will instead contain all possible outcomes, with a count of 0
for those not observed. See example.
Args:
samples: An array of samples, with the shape being ``(shots,len(wires))`` if no observable
is provided, with sample values being an array of 0s or 1s for each wire. Otherwise, it
has shape ``(shots,)``, with sample values being scalar eigenvalues of the observable
mp (~.measurements.CountsMP): the measurement process sampled
num_wires (int): number of wires the sampled observable was performed on
Returns:
dict: dictionary with format ``{'outcome': num_occurences}``, including all
outcomes for the sampled observable
**Example**
>>> num_wires = 2
>>> dev = qml.device("default.qubit.legacy", wires=num_wires)
>>> mp = qml.counts()
>>> samples = pnp.array([[0, 0], [0, 0], [1, 0]])
>>> dev._samples_to_counts(samples, mp, num_wires)
{'00': 2, '10': 1}
>>> mp = qml.counts(all_outcomes=True)
>>> dev._samples_to_counts(samples, mp, num_wires)
{'00': 2, '01': 0, '10': 1, '11': 0}
The variable all_outcomes can be set when running measurements.counts, i.e.:
.. code-block:: python3
dev = qml.device("default.qubit", wires=2, shots=4)
@qml.qnode(dev)
def circuit(x):
qml.RX(x, wires=0)
return qml.counts(all_outcomes=True)
"""
outcomes = []
# if an observable was provided, batched samples will have shape (batch_size, shots)
batched_ndims = 2
shape = samples.shape
if mp.obs is None and not isinstance(mp.mv, MeasurementValue):
# convert samples and outcomes (if using) from arrays to str for dict keys
samples = np.array([sample for sample in samples if not np.any(np.isnan(sample))])
samples = qml.math.cast_like(samples, qml.math.int8(0))
samples = np.apply_along_axis(_sample_to_str, -1, samples)
batched_ndims = 3 # no observable was provided, batched samples will have shape (batch_size, shots, len(wires))
if mp.all_outcomes:
outcomes = list(map(_sample_to_str, self.generate_basis_states(num_wires)))
elif mp.all_outcomes:
outcomes = mp.eigvals()
batched = len(shape) == batched_ndims
if not batched:
samples = samples[None]
# generate empty outcome dict, populate values with state counts
base_dict = {k: np.int64(0) for k in outcomes}
outcome_dicts = [base_dict.copy() for _ in range(shape[0])]
results = [np.unique(batch, return_counts=True) for batch in samples]
for result, outcome_dict in zip(results, outcome_dicts):
states, counts = result
for state, count in zip(states, counts):
outcome_dict[state] = count
return outcome_dicts if batched else outcome_dicts[0]
[docs] def sample(self, observable, shot_range=None, bin_size=None, counts=False):
"""Return samples of an observable.
Args:
observable (Observable): the observable to sample
shot_range (tuple[int]): 2-tuple of integers specifying the range of samples
to use. If not specified, all samples are used.
bin_size (int): Divides the shot range into bins of size ``bin_size``, and
returns the measurement statistic separately over each bin. If not
provided, the entire shot range is treated as a single bin.
counts (bool): whether counts (``True``) or raw samples (``False``)
should be returned
Raises:
EigvalsUndefinedError: if no information is available about the
eigenvalues of the observable
Returns:
Union[array[float], dict, list[dict]]: samples in an array of
dimension ``(shots,)`` or counts
"""
mp = observable
no_observable_provided = False
if isinstance(mp, MeasurementProcess):
if mp.obs is not None:
observable = mp.obs
elif mp.mv is not None and isinstance(mp.mv, MeasurementValue):
observable = mp.mv
else:
no_observable_provided = True
# translate to wire labels used by device. observable is list when measuring sequence
# of multiple MeasurementValues
device_wires = self.map_wires(observable.wires)
name = None if no_observable_provided else observable.name
# Select the samples from self._samples that correspond to ``shot_range`` if provided
if shot_range is None:
sub_samples = self._samples
else:
# Indexing corresponds to: (potential broadcasting, shots, wires). Note that the last
# colon (:) is required because shots is the second-to-last axis and the
# Ellipsis (...) otherwise would take up broadcasting and shots axes.
sub_samples = self._samples[..., slice(*shot_range), :]
if isinstance(name, str) and name in {"PauliX", "PauliY", "PauliZ", "Hadamard"}:
# Process samples for observables with eigenvalues {1, -1}
samples = 1 - 2 * sub_samples[..., device_wires[0]]
elif no_observable_provided:
# if no observable was provided then return the raw samples
if len(observable.wires) != 0:
# if wires are provided, then we only return samples from those wires
samples = sub_samples[..., np.array(device_wires)]
else:
samples = sub_samples
else:
# Replace the basis state in the computational basis with the correct eigenvalue.
# Extract only the columns of the basis samples required based on ``wires``.
samples = sub_samples[..., np.array(device_wires)] # Add np.array here for Jax support.
powers_of_two = 2 ** np.arange(samples.shape[-1])[::-1]
indices = samples @ powers_of_two
indices = np.array(indices) # Add np.array here for Jax support.
if isinstance(observable, MeasurementValue):
eigvals = self._asarray(
[observable[i] for i in range(2 ** len(observable.measurements))],
dtype=self.R_DTYPE,
)
samples = eigvals[indices]
else:
try:
samples = observable.eigvals()[indices]
except qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError as e:
# if observable has no info on eigenvalues, we cannot return this measurement
raise qml.operation.EigvalsUndefinedError(
f"Cannot compute samples of {observable.name}."
) from e
num_wires = len(device_wires) if len(device_wires) > 0 else self.num_wires
if bin_size is None:
if counts:
return self._samples_to_counts(samples, mp, num_wires)
return samples
if counts:
shape = (-1, bin_size, num_wires) if no_observable_provided else (-1, bin_size)
return [
self._samples_to_counts(bin_sample, mp, num_wires)
for bin_sample in samples.reshape(shape)
]
return (
samples.T.reshape((num_wires, bin_size, -1))
if no_observable_provided
else samples.reshape((bin_size, -1))
)
[docs] def adjoint_jacobian(
self, tape: QuantumTape, starting_state=None, use_device_state=False
): # pylint: disable=too-many-statements
"""Implements the adjoint method outlined in
`Jones and Gacon <https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.02823>`__ to differentiate an input tape.
After a forward pass, the circuit is reversed by iteratively applying adjoint
gates to scan backwards through the circuit.
.. note::
The adjoint differentiation method has the following restrictions:
* As it requires knowledge of the statevector, only statevector simulator devices can be
used.
* Only expectation values are supported as measurements.
* Cannot differentiate with respect to state-prep operations.
* Does not work for parametrized observables like
:class:`~.Hamiltonian` or :class:`~.Hermitian`.
Args:
tape (.QuantumTape): circuit that the function takes the gradient of
Keyword Args:
starting_state (tensor_like): post-forward pass state to start execution with. It should be
complex-valued. Takes precedence over ``use_device_state``.
use_device_state (bool): use current device state to initialize. A forward pass of the same
circuit should be the last thing the device has executed. If a ``starting_state`` is
provided, that takes precedence.
Returns:
array or tuple[array]: the derivative of the tape with respect to trainable parameters.
Dimensions are ``(len(observables), len(trainable_params))``.
Raises:
QuantumFunctionError: if the input tape has measurements that are not expectation values
or contains a multi-parameter operation aside from :class:`~.Rot`
"""
if tape.batch_size is not None:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Parameter broadcasting is not supported with adjoint differentiation"
)
# broadcasted inner product not summing over first dimension of b
sum_axes = tuple(range(1, self.num_wires + 1))
# pylint: disable=unnecessary-lambda-assignment
dot_product_real = lambda b, k: self._real(qmlsum(self._conj(b) * k, axis=sum_axes))
for m in tape.measurements:
if not isinstance(m, ExpectationMP):
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Adjoint differentiation method does not support"
f" measurement {m.__class__.__name__}"
)
if m.obs.name == "Hamiltonian":
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
"Adjoint differentiation method does not support Hamiltonian observables."
)
if self.shot_vector is not None:
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError("Adjoint does not support shot vectors.")
if self.shots is not None:
warnings.warn(
"Requested adjoint differentiation to be computed with finite shots. "
"The derivative is always exact when using the adjoint differentiation method.",
UserWarning,
)
# Initialization of state
if starting_state is not None:
ket = self._reshape(starting_state, [2] * self.num_wires)
else:
if not use_device_state:
self.reset()
self.execute(tape)
ket = self._pre_rotated_state
n_obs = len(tape.observables)
bras = np.empty([n_obs] + [2] * self.num_wires, dtype=np.complex128)
for kk in range(n_obs):
bras[kk, ...] = self._apply_operation(ket, tape.observables[kk])
expanded_ops = []
for op in reversed(tape.operations):
if op.num_params > 1:
if not isinstance(op, qml.Rot):
raise qml.QuantumFunctionError(
f"The {op.name} operation is not supported using "
'the "adjoint" differentiation method'
)
ops = op.decomposition()
expanded_ops.extend(reversed(ops))
elif op.name not in ("StatePrep", "QubitStateVector", "BasisState", "Snapshot"):
expanded_ops.append(op)
trainable_params = []
for k in tape.trainable_params:
# pylint: disable=protected-access
mp_or_op = tape[tape._par_info[k]["op_idx"]]
if isinstance(mp_or_op, MeasurementProcess):
warnings.warn(
"Differentiating with respect to the input parameters of "
f"{mp_or_op.obs.name} is not supported with the "
"adjoint differentiation method. Gradients are computed "
"only with regards to the trainable parameters of the circuit.\n\n Mark "
"the parameters of the measured observables as non-trainable "
"to silence this warning.",
UserWarning,
)
else:
trainable_params.append(k)
jac = np.zeros((len(tape.observables), len(trainable_params)))
param_number = len(tape.get_parameters(trainable_only=False, operations_only=True)) - 1
trainable_param_number = len(trainable_params) - 1
for op in expanded_ops:
adj_op = qml.adjoint(op)
ket = self._apply_operation(ket, adj_op)
if op.num_params == 1:
if param_number in trainable_params:
d_op_matrix = operation_derivative(op)
ket_temp = self._apply_unitary(ket, d_op_matrix, op.wires)
jac[:, trainable_param_number] = 2 * dot_product_real(bras, ket_temp)
trainable_param_number -= 1
param_number -= 1
for kk in range(n_obs):
bras[kk, ...] = self._apply_operation(bras[kk, ...], adj_op)
return self._adjoint_jacobian_processing(jac)
@staticmethod
def _adjoint_jacobian_processing(jac):
"""
Post-process the Jacobian matrix returned by ``adjoint_jacobian`` for
the new return type system.
"""
jac = np.squeeze(jac)
if jac.ndim == 0:
return np.array(jac)
if jac.ndim == 1:
return tuple(np.array(j) for j in jac)
# must be 2-dimensional
return tuple(tuple(np.array(j_) for j_ in j) for j in jac)
def _get_diagonalizing_gates(self, circuit: QuantumTape) -> List[Operation]:
"""Returns the gates that diagonalize the measured wires such that they
are in the eigenbasis of the circuit observables.
Note that this exists as a method of the Device class to enable child classes to
override the implementation if necessary (for example, to skip computing rotation
gates for a measurement that doesn't need them).
Args:
circuit (~.tape.QuantumTape): The circuit containing observables that may need diagonalizing
Returns:
List[~.Operation]: the operations that diagonalize the observables
"""
# pylint:disable=no-self-use
return circuit.diagonalizing_gates
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